VIETNAM WAR OVERVIEW
The Vietnam War is one of the most famous conflicts from the 20th century. There is no question that few conflicts have been as violent, long lasting and complex as the Vietnam War. The war was fought between the North Vietnamese and the South Vietnamese throughout the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. The north had the support of communist allies including the Soviet Union and China, while the south had the support of the west with the United States. In fact, the United States entered the war militarily and played a large role in the conflict for several years. Due to the time period and nature of the Vietnam War historians today consider it to be a Cold War era proxy war between the United States and Soviet Union.
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WHY DID THE UNITED STATES GET INVOLVED?
The main reason the United States got involved in Vietnam was the purpose of doing everything possible to keep communism from spreading around world. Since the beginning of the Cold War the United States had practiced a policy of containment against the expansion of communism, and wanted to prevent the ideology from taking root in different regions of the world. This containment policy is often referred to as the Truman Doctrine, since American President Harry S. Truman argued that the United States should actively support the containment of Soviet Communism in the years immediately after World War II. Further to this idea, the reasons for American involvement in the Vietnam War are often held as part of the Domino Theory.
The domino theory was a Cold War era belief popular within the United States from the 1950's until the end of the Cold War. Based on the Truman Doctrine, the theory held the idea that if Soviet communism was able to spread into a single country, then it had the potential to spread to all of the other surrounding countries. The basic idea was that the American's needed to prevent the first domino from falling (country turning to communism) in order to prevent the spread of communism. As such, historians now argue that the United States used the Domino Theory to justify its involvement in Vietnam, just as it did in the earlier War in Korea.
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LEAD UP TO THE VIETNAM WAR
The war in Vietnam was the result of years and decades of tensions within the country. For example, in the late 19th century France controlled the country as part of its colonial empire. This colonial history angered many in Vietnam and caused a growing sense of mistrust towards foreign powers. Next, Japan dominated the region in the years during World War II. After the war ended and Japan was defeated by the United States, France, with the aid of the United States, attempted to regain control over Vietnam. However, this attempt led to the rise to power of Ho Chi Minh, a communist revolutionary, and the Viet Minh independence movement. As such, France was defeated at the battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954 and North Vietnam came under the control of Ho Chi Minh and his communist forces. South Vietnam was controlled by Ngo Dinh Diem and was supported by western democracies such as the United States.
Diem ruled over South Vietnam as a dictator as the tensions between North and South Vietnam intensified. United States President Dwight Eisenhower supported the Diem regime, as the United States was interested in stopping the spread of communism in the region. For example, by 1960 the United States had sent nearly 700 “advisors” into South Vietnam along with other financial and military aid. Regardless, the Diem regime was not well liked by all people in the country, including Buddhists who were persecuted against by the Catholic leader.
Soon, the United States took an increased role militarily in Vietnam. After being elected president in 1960, John F. Kennedy increased the military advisors in Vietnam to 16,000. Next, in 1963, Kennedy supported an overthrow (coup d’etat) of the Diem regime which resulted in the death of Diem and his brother. Unfortunately, John F. Kennedy was assassinated soon after on November 22nd, 1963. He was replaced by Lyndon Johnson who would have a profound impact on the escalation of the United States’ involvement in Vietnam.
Soon, the United States took an increased role militarily in Vietnam. After being elected president in 1960, John F. Kennedy increased the military advisors in Vietnam to 16,000. Next, in 1963, Kennedy supported an overthrow (coup d’etat) of the Diem regime which resulted in the death of Diem and his brother. Unfortunately, John F. Kennedy was assassinated soon after on November 22nd, 1963. He was replaced by Lyndon Johnson who would have a profound impact on the escalation of the United States’ involvement in Vietnam.
THE UNITED STATES GETS INVOLVED IN THE VIETNAM WAR
When Lyndon Johnson became president he was determined to prevent communism from spreading into Vietnam. In fact, his Secretary of Defense, Robert McNamara, advised Johnson to try to overwhelm the communist forces of North Vietnam in order to cause their retreat. The Gulf of Tonkin incident in 1964 would ultimately see the tensions in the region rapidly increase and cause the United States to take an increased role.
The Gulf of Tonkin incident was two separate events in August of 1964 in which the United Stats claimed that its naval forces operating in the waters of the gulf had been attacked by Vietnamese torpedo boats. The first was on August 2nd, when the USS Maddox was patrolling the Gulf of Tonkin and was followed by three Vietnamese torpedo boats. The ships engaged in a short firefight in which the USS Maddox damaged the torpedo boats, while escaping with only a single bullet hole. The second incident was said to have occurred two days later on August 4th. Again, it was suggested that Vietnamese ships and United States ships engaged in sea battle. However, both Gulf of Tonkin incidents have been called into question by historians. For example, it is now generally understood that the August 4th incident did not take place and was the result of a false radar reading by the Americans. Regardless, these incidents would be pivotal in the escalation of American involvement in Vietnam and the eventual Golf of Tonkin Resolution, which was passed by Congress, and allowed Lyndon Johnson to begin delivering American forces into the country.
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The war escalated quickly between 1965 and 1968 as during this time the United States deployed hundreds of thousands of American soldiers to the battlefield. For example, by the end of 1965, the United States had committed nearly 200,000 soldiers to Vietnam, and that increased to over 500,000 by 1968.
The enemy facing the United States was the Viet Cong. In general, they were communist forces who operated on behalf of North Vietnam, but they fought across both North and South Vietnam. Because they were the same ethnicity as South Vietnamese people, they were able to easily integrate into society in South Vietnam without being identifiable by American forces. The Viet Cong were noted for their use of guerilla warfare tactics, meaning they did not practise traditional forms of warfare and instead favored sabotage or ambushes. Throughout the war, American commanders underestimated the resolve of the Viet Cong and struggled to defeat a non-traditional enemy
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The American ground war in Vietnam was commanded by General Westmoreland, and the American soldiers were faced with intense guerrilla-style warfare in the jungles and fields of the countryside. In general, American forces did not attempt to make any territorial gains in Vietnam at this time. Rather, the United States followed a policy in which their end goal was to kill as many enemy soldiers as possible in order to limit their ability to fight back and to destroy morale. This policy in the ground war was best exemplified in the air war that was also carried out during the conflict.
In Vietnam, the United States essentially controlled the air and used their superiority to carry out many bombing campaigns against enemy targets including carpet-bombing with the burning agent napalm. The Viet Cong used the cover of the jungles in order to hide their movements. As such, the Americans began using napalm in order to burn away the canopy of the jungle. Napalm was essentially a chemical used in bombs that burned intensely and proved effective at removing trees and leaf coverage. While this proved effective at times, the Viet Cong were still able to elude American capture in underground tunnels and the neighboring countries of Cambodia and Laos.
As well as the use of napalm, the United States carried out many bombing campaigns against North Vietnam itself. For example, beginning in March of 1965, the United States undertook the massive Operation Rolling Thunder which saw American bombers carryout bombing runs aimed at strategic targets in North Vietnam. Operation Rolling Thunder lasted from 1965 until 1968 and was aimed at destroying the ability of the North Vietnamese to continue to wage war. It was hoped that it would destroy the morale in the country and eventually lead to an American victory in the war. While some historians have argued that the United States was close to preventing the north from continuing their war effort, Operation Rolling Thunder failed to deliver the results that the army wanted.
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TET OFFENSIVE OF THE VIETNAM WAR
A major event in the continuation of the war was in 1968 when the Viet Cong and other North Vietnamese forces carried out the Tet Offensive. Beginning on January 20th, 1968, the Tet Offensive saw the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese army combine to launch a series of attacks against South Vietnamese forces and the United States army. The initial attacks were successful and the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese army were able to capture many cities in South Vietnam. The fighting is brutal and lasts for several months, during which the Viet Cong carry out the executions of thousands of people.
However, within a few months the American forces are able to push back the offensive and ultimately crush the Viet Cong. The Tet Offensive came to an end near the end of September in 1968 and while American forces withstood and repelled the attack, it is generally viewed negatively within the United States. American citizens were shocked at the ability of North Vietnam to carry out such an attack after appearing to be nearly defeated. This caused the protest movement against the war of the 1960’s to continue to grow in strength throughout the United States and caused many Americans to begin to question the leadership of Lyndon Johnson.
However, within a few months the American forces are able to push back the offensive and ultimately crush the Viet Cong. The Tet Offensive came to an end near the end of September in 1968 and while American forces withstood and repelled the attack, it is generally viewed negatively within the United States. American citizens were shocked at the ability of North Vietnam to carry out such an attack after appearing to be nearly defeated. This caused the protest movement against the war of the 1960’s to continue to grow in strength throughout the United States and caused many Americans to begin to question the leadership of Lyndon Johnson.
LYNDON JOHNSON REPLACED BY RICHARD NIXON
Lyndon Johnson ultimately decided not to seek re-election for a second term as president. Facing growing unrest within the United States and an uncertain exit strategy from the Vietnam War, Johnson announced that he would not seek re-election and would not accept the nomination for president from the Democratic Party. As such, many historians view the Vietnam War and the anti-war movement of the 1960’s as key reasons for the end of Johnson’s presidency. In fact, in 1971, the leaked 'Pentagon Papers' showed that the Johnson administration was aware that the conflict in Vietnam was not going well, but stated otherwise in order to try to prevent the United States from a humiliating defeat in Vietnam.
Lyndon Johnson was replaced by Richard Nixon, a Republican, in January of 1969. Nixon was elected under the promise of 'Peace with Honor', stating he would end the ground conflict in Vietnam while also allowing the United States to leave without being humiliated. His plan, referred to Vietnamization, was to have South Vietnamese forces take responsibility for fighting on the ground, and instead, the United States would continue to carry out air assaults and bombing campaigns.
Calls for an end to the war, within the United States, continued to intensify throughout 1969. This sentiment became even stronger after the details of the My Lai Massacre were revealed to the American public. In March of 1968, more than 400 Vietnamese civilians, including women and children, were killed by American forces in the small town of My Lai in South Vietnam. The massacre shocked the world and increased the sentiment that the United States should exit the conflict permanently. |
FINAL STAGES OF THE VIETNAM WAR
In the early 1970’s the conflict spilled over into the neighbouring countries of Cambodia and Laos. Meanwhile, the United States and North Vietnam sought to complete a ceasefire that would ultimately bring about an end to the war. In general, North Vietnam wanted to the United States to agree to a full withdrawal of the country, which American leadership was initially unwilling to do. However, by 1972, the United States was willing to negotiate their removal from the war.
United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger had been carrying out secret peace talks with North Vietnam since 1968, and by 1972, they began to take shape. Finally, in January of 1973, a peace agreement was reached between the two sides. The ceasefire had several conditions, including: the United States was to remove all forces from Vietnam, North Vietnam forces could remain in South Vietnam and North Vietnam could continue to fight against South Vietnamese forces. The final American forces left the country on March 29th of 1973.
The war between North Vietnam and South Vietnam continued until 1975 when the north finally defeated South Vietnam. Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, was captured on April 30th, 1975 and renamed it Ho Chi Minh City after the former leader of the north.
United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger had been carrying out secret peace talks with North Vietnam since 1968, and by 1972, they began to take shape. Finally, in January of 1973, a peace agreement was reached between the two sides. The ceasefire had several conditions, including: the United States was to remove all forces from Vietnam, North Vietnam forces could remain in South Vietnam and North Vietnam could continue to fight against South Vietnamese forces. The final American forces left the country on March 29th of 1973.
The war between North Vietnam and South Vietnam continued until 1975 when the north finally defeated South Vietnam. Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, was captured on April 30th, 1975 and renamed it Ho Chi Minh City after the former leader of the north.
IMPACTS AND LEGACY OF THE VIETNAM WAR
In the end, the Vietnam War left a tremendous legacy and impacts the war is still felt today. In all, over 3 million Vietnamese were killed including military combatants and citizens from both North and South Vietnam. 58,000 American soldiers were killed in the conflict with another 300,000 being wounded, of which 150,000 required hospital care. As well, some historians have stated that the war itself cost the United States over $150 Billion USD.
Many American veterans, who returned home following the war, had suffered serious psychological trauma. Known now as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, the disorder caused soldiers to struggle with daily life in America. The soldiers, who had been witness to the horrors of war, struggled with nightmares as well as anxiety and depression. Many did not receive the necessary care that they required following the war, and battled with the conditions for years and decades following the end of the war.
Many American veterans, who returned home following the war, had suffered serious psychological trauma. Known now as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, the disorder caused soldiers to struggle with daily life in America. The soldiers, who had been witness to the horrors of war, struggled with nightmares as well as anxiety and depression. Many did not receive the necessary care that they required following the war, and battled with the conditions for years and decades following the end of the war.
In the United States, the war also created a great deal of controversy and impacted the social and political systems of the country. As discussed earlier, the Vietnam War, led to a large anti-war movement that swept across the country. The movement was started against the war in Vietnam due to so many Americans not wanting to see their friends and relatives sent to Vietnam to get killed or seriously injured. As such, many of the anti-war protests associated with the Vietnam War were carried out on College campuses across the United States. This is because young people were the primary people expressing views against the war. Furthermore, the reality of the war was broadcast nightly on television and was a constant reminder of the horrible conditions facing the soldiers.
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The war was also controversial and opposed by some due to the impact on different social classes, because most of the Americans being drafted came from lower class families and minorities. The lower the education of an American Citizen and the lower the income they earned, the harder it was for them to avoid being drafted. As such, many viewed the draft system as unfair and wanted it abolished. For this reason, the anti-war movement was very popular on college campuses across the United States, because students who were able to avoid the draft were upset to see their friends and peers sent off to a brutal war. The movement gained strength and popularity as the death tolls of American soldiers grew higher and higher throughout the years of the war. The best known campus protest was the Kent State protest on May 4th, 1970 in which National Guard troops opened fire and killed 4 students.
The anti-war movement reached across all aspects of American society including popular music. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, popular artists and forms of music began to express the ideals of the movement, including artists such as: Bob Dylan, Joan Baez, Jimi Hendrix, John Lennon, and more. The largest musical event of the anti-war movement and related protests was without a doubt the Woodstock Music Festival held in New York State in 1969. With more than half a million people attending this legendary concert festival and some of the biggest musical acts of the time performing, it had a profound effect on the hearts and minds of American citizens.
Politically, the Vietnam War impacted the United States in several ways, including 26th Amendment and the War Powers Act. The 26th Amendment allowed 18 year-old Americans to vote in state and federal elections. This amendment was passed due to 18 year-old Americans being drafted to fight in the war, while not being able to vote for their elected representatives. Many saw this as unfair and it was changed during the course of the war. As well, Richard Nixon abolished the draft system of the United States in January of 1973, which effectively turned the army into an all-volunteer system. The Vietnam War also resulted in the War Powers Act of 1973. Under this act, the president must notify Congress within 48 hours of using military service. Also, under the act, the president must withdraw American forces from the battlefield unless he gains Congressional approval within 90 days.
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